Drug development and potential targets for Cushing's syndrome.

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a complex disorder characterized by the excessive secretion of cortisol, with Cushing's disease (CD), particularly associated with pituitary tumors, exhibiting heightened morbidity and mortality. Although transsphenoidal pituitary surgery (TSS) stands as the primary treatment for CD, there is a crucial need to optimize patient prognosis. Current medical therapy serves as an adjunctive measure due to its unsatisfactory efficacy and unpredictable side effects. In this comprehensive review, we delve into recent advances in understanding the pathogenesis of CS and explore therapeutic options by conducting a critical analysis of potential drug targets and candidates. Additionally, we provide an overview of the design strategy employed in previously reported candidates, along with a summary of structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses and their biological efficacy. This review aims to contribute valuable insights to the evolving landscape of CS research, shedding light on potential avenues for therapeutic development.

[Hypertensive Emergency as the Debut of Paraneoplastic Cushing Syndrome]. / Emergencia hipertensiva como debut de síndrome de Cushing paraneoplásico.

We present the case of a patient with a history of renal-vascular hypertension treated with stent one year previously, who attended the emergency room due to hypertensive emergency and dyspnea. Once the first suspicion of renal artery restenosis was ruled out with CT angiography, the study was completed, confirming the diagnosis of lung cancer through imaging and pathological anatomy. In the hormonal study, elevation of ACTH, hypercortisolism and analytical data of hyperaldosteronism were detected. With the final diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome secondary to ectopic production of ACTH, medical treatment was started, without being able to receive anything else due to the death of the patient after a few days.

Cushing's syndrome diagnosed incidentally on CT imaging.

In this case report, we describe an uncommon presentation of Cushing's syndrome in a patient in their 60s who presented to the emergency department with left-sided chest pain. The initial workup for the patient was unremarkable except for an elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting plasma glucose. A CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis was performed, demonstrating a splenic artery thrombus with multiple splenic infarcts, in addition to a combination of macronodular adrenal hyperplasia, bilateral gynecomastia, centripetal fat distribution and suspected mild bone demineralisation. Adrenocorticotropic hormone-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia, a rare aetiology responsible for Cushing's syndrome, was raised as a potential unifying diagnosis for the patient's hypercoagulable status, which was subsequently confirmed on an endocrinological investigation. The case report underscores the importance of communicating clinically relevant details to the imaging specialist in combination with considering a broad differential, including endocrine disorders, when evaluating an undifferentiated patient with atypical imaging findings.

A challenging case of ectopic ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome due to medullary thyroid carcinoma.

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Fulminant ectopic Cushing's syndrome caused by metastatic small intestine neuroendocrine tumour - a case report and review of the literature.

Cushing's syndrome (CS) secondary to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) producing tumours is a severe condition with a challenging diagnosis. Ectopic ACTH-secretion often involves neuroendocrine tumours (NET) in the respiratory tract. ACTH-secreting small intestine neuro-endocrine tumours (siNET) are extremely rare entities barely reported in literature. This review is illustrated by the case of a 75-year old woman with fulminant ectopic CS caused by a ACTH-secreting metastatic siNET. Severe hypokalemia, fluid retention and refractory hypertension were the presenting symptoms. Basal and dynamic laboratory studies were diagnostic for ACTH-dependent CS. Extensive imaging studies of the pituitary and thorax-abdomen areas were normal, while [68Ga]Ga-DOTATATE PET-CT revealed increased small intestine uptake in the left iliac fossa. The hypercortisolism was well controlled with somatostatin analogues, after which a debulking resection of the tumour was performed. Pathological investigation confirmed a well-differentiated NET with sporadic ACTH immunostaining and post-operative treatment with somatostatin analogues was continued with favourable disease control.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone test predicts the outcome of unilateral adrenalectomy in primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia.

PURPOSE: Primary bilateral adrenal hyperplasia (PBMAH) is associated with hypercortisolism and a heterogeneous clinical expression in terms of cortisol secretion and related comorbidities. Historically, treatment of choice was bilateral adrenalectomy (B-Adx); however, recent data suggest that unilateral adrenalectomy (U-Adx) may be an effective alternative. For the latter, factors predicting the postsurgical outcome (e.g., biochemical control) have not been identified yet. METHODS: PBMAH patients undergoing U-Adx for overt Cushing's syndrome (CS) in two tertiary care centers were retrospectively analysed. Remission was defined as a normalization of urinary free cortisol (UFC) without the need for medical treatment. The potential of hCRH test as a predictor of U-Adx outcome was evaluated in a subgroup. RESULTS: 23 patients were evaluated (69% females, mean age 55 years). Remission rate after U-Adx was 74% at last follow up (median 115 months from UAdx). Before U-Adx, a positive ACTH response to hCRH (Δ%ACTH increase > 50% from baseline) was associated with higher remission rates. CONCLUSIONS: Three of four patients with PBMAH are surgically cured with U-Adx. Pre-operative hCRH testing can be useful to predict long-term remission rates.

Holistic burden of illness in patients with endogenous Cushing's syndrome: A systematic literature review.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this systematic literature review (SLR) was to summarize the latest studies evaluating the burden of illness in endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS), including the impact of CS on overall and domain-specific health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and the economic burden of CS to provide a holistic understanding of disease and treatment burden. METHODS: An SLR was conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE and Embase using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist to identify peer-reviewed manuscripts and conference abstracts published in English from 2015 to December 4, 2020. RESULTS: Forty-five publications were eligible for inclusion; data were extracted from 37 primary studies while 8 SLRs were included for reference only. Thirty-one studies reported HRQoL using validated patient reported outcome (PRO) measures in pre- or post-surgery, radiotherapy and pharmacotherapy patients. Overall, this SLR found that patients with CS have worse outcomes relative to healthy populations across specific dimensions, such as depression, despite an improvement in HRQoL post-treatment. These findings reveal that CS symptoms are not fully resolved by the existing care paradigm. Few studies report on the economic burden of CS and currently available data indicate a high direct healthcare system cost burden. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CS experience a significant, complex and multifactorial HRQoL burden. Symptom-specific burden studies are sparse in the literature and the understanding of long-term CS symptomatic burden and economic burden is limited. This review intends to provide an updated reference for clinicians, payers and other stakeholders on the burden of CS as reported in published literature and to encourage further research in this area.

Cushing Syndrome in Childhood.

We describe a 15-year-old boy who presented with low back pain due to vertebral compression fractures, growth deceleration, excessive weight gain, rounded facies, dorsocervical fat pad, and hypertension. He was diagnosed as having Cushing syndrome (CS) due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease resulting in excess cortisol produced by the adrenal glands, leading to disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The most common cause of CS is exogenous glucocorticoids, with endogenous causes being extremely rare, often leading to delay in diagnosis or misdiagnosis. Herein, we review clinical presentation, screening for hypercortisolism, and decision-making in the diagnosis of CS, as well as therapeutic approaches. The wide range of clinical presentations in pediatric CS and the rarity of the condition can lead to difficulty in the recognition, diagnosis, and subsequent management of these patients. CS can be difficult to differentiate from more common exogenous obesity, and outpatient screening of cortisol excess is challenging. Early recognition and treatment of CS is necessary to avoid multisystemic complications, and patients with suspected endogenous CS should be referred to a tertiary care center with experienced pediatric endocrinology and surgery specialists. Further confirmatory diagnostic tests are necessary to distinguish corticotropin-independent from corticotropin-dependent forms of CS, including a high-dose dexamethasone suppression test, a corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test, and imaging. There can be challenges to the evaluation of CS, including complex inpatient testing and difficulty with localization on imaging. Long-term sequelae of CS, including adrenal insufficiency, obesity, hypertension, and mental health disorders, may remain despite definitive surgical treatment, meriting close follow-up with the primary care clinician and subspecialists.

Case Report: Adrenocortical carcinoma in children-symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.

Adrenocortical carcinomas are extremely rare in the paediatric population. Most of them are hormone-secretive lesions; therefore, they should be taken into consideration in a child with signs of precocious puberty and/or Cushing's syndrome symptoms. Nonetheless, differentiation from benign adrenal tumours is necessary. We report a rare case of adrenocortical carcinoma in a girl and a literature review using the PubMed database. A four-year-old girl presented with rapidly progressing precocious puberty and signs of Cushing's syndrome. Imaging of the abdomen revealed a large heterogeneous solid mass. Histopathologic evaluation confirmed adrenocortical carcinoma with high mitotic activity, atypical mitoses, pleomorphism, necrosis, and vascular invasion. After tumourectomy, a decrease of previously elevated hormonal blood parameters was observed. Genetic tests confirmed Li Fraumeni syndrome. Adrenocortical carcinoma should be suspected in children with premature pubarche and signs of Cushing's syndrome. Diagnosis must be based on clinical presentation, hormonal tests, imaging, and histopathological evaluation. Complete surgical resection of the tumour is the gold standard. Oncological treatment in children is not yet well-studied and should be individually considered, especially in advanced, inoperable carcinomas with metastases. Genetic investigations are useful for determining the prognosis in patients and their siblings.

Pharmacological Treatment of Cushing's Syndrome.

The 1st line treatment of Cushing's syndrome is surgery, whatever the aetiology. The role of pharmacological treatment is clear in cases where surgery fails or is impossible, in cases of metastases, or while awaiting the delayed effects of radiotherapy. However, certain situations remain controversial, in particular the possible role of pharmacological treatment as a preparation for surgery. This situation must be divided into 2 parts, severe hypercortisolism with immediate vital risk and non-severe hypercortisolism with diagnostic delay. The initiation and adjustment of treatment doses is also controversial, with the possibility of titration by gradual dose increase based on biological markers, or a more radical "block and replace" approach in which the ultimate goal is to achieve hypocortisolism, which can then be supplemented. Each of these approaches has its advantages and drawbacks and should probably be reserved for different patient profiles depending on the severity of hypercortisolism. In this review, we will focus specifically on these 2 points, namely the potential role of preoperative pharmacological treatment and, more generally, the optimal way to initiate and monitor drug treatment to ensure that eucortisolism or hypocortisolism is achieved. We will define for each part which profiles of patients should be the most adapted to try to give advice on the optimal management of patients with hypercortisolism.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone-secreting phaeochromocytoma as a cause of treatment-resistant hypertension and recurrent pulmonary emboli.

We report an unusual case of a patient presenting with Cushing's syndrome caused by a phaeochromocytoma secreting adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The patient had a history of treatment-resistant hypertension, secondary amenorrhoea and tendency towards hypokalaemia. She had multiple signs of Cushing's syndrome, such as swelling, bruising, abdominal striae and proximal myopathy. Hypokalaemia is more common in patients with ectopic ACTH-secretion than other causes of Cushing's syndrome. Computed tomography, adrenal vein sampling and biochemistry could confirm an ACTH-secreting phaeochromocytoma. It is important to consider that hypersecretion of more than one hormone may exist in a unilateral adrenal adenoma. This patient also presented with recurrent pulmonary emboli, and there is an increased risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with ACTH-secreting phaeochromocytoma. Anticoagulation should be considered for as long as the disease is active. We demonstrate that unilateral adrenalectomy can be curative in patients with ACTH-secreting phaeochromocytoma.

Bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling: validity, diagnostic accuracy in lateralization of pituitary microadenoma, and treatment in eleven patients with Cushing's syndrome - a single-center retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: This single-center retrospective cohort study aimed to describe the findings and validity of Bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BIPSS) in the differential diagnosis of patients with ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome (CS). METHODS: Eleven patients underwent BIPSS due to equivocal biochemical tests and imaging results. Blood samples were taken from the right inferior petrosal sinus (IPS), left IPS, and a peripheral vein before and after stimulation with desmopressin (DDAVP). ACTH and prolactin levels were measured. The diagnosis was based on the ACTH ratio between the IPS and the peripheral vein. Also, lateralization of pituitary adenoma in patients with Cushing's disease (CD) was predicted. No significant complications were observed with BIPSS. RESULTS: Based on the pathology report, eight patients had CD, and three had ectopic ACTH syndrome (EAS). Unstimulated BIPSS resulted in a sensitivity of 87.5%, specificity of 100%, PPV of 100%, NPV of 75%, and accuracy of 91%. Stimulated BIPSS resulted in a sensitivity of 100%, specificity of 100%, PPV of 100%, NPV of 100%, and accuracy of 100%. However, pituitary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) had a lower diagnostic accuracy (sensitivity:62.5%, specificity:33%, PPV:71%, NPV:25%, accuracy:54%). BIPSS accurately demonstrated pituitary adenoma lateralization in 75% of patients with CD. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that BIPSS may be a reliable and low-complication technique in evaluating patients with ACTH-dependent CS who had inconclusive imaging and biochemical test results. The diagnostic accuracy is improved by DDAVP stimulation. Pituitary adenoma lateralization can be predicted with the aid of BIPSS.

Paediatric and adolescent ectopic Cushing's syndrome: systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: The data on clinical, biochemical, radiological characteristics, and outcomes in paediatric ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome (EAS) are limited owing to rarity of the condition. We report three new cases and perform a systematic review of paediatric EAS. DESIGN AND METHOD: Case records of paediatric and adolescent EAS patient's ≤20 years presenting at our centre between 1997 and 2021 were retrospectively reviewed, and a systematic review of the literature published between January 1970 and December 2022 was performed. RESULTS: A total of 161 patients including 3 new patients from our centre were identified. Bronchial neuroendocrine tumours (NET) (28.5%), thymic NET (22.9%), primitive cell-derived tumours (18.6%), and gastro-entero-pancreatic-NET (13.7%) were the common causes. Primitive cell-derived tumours were the most common in the first decade (24/45, 53.4%) and were the largest (82 [60-100] mm), whereas bronchial NETs predominated during the second decade (42/116, 36.2%) and were the smallest (15 [10-25] mm). Computed tomography localized 92.9% (118/127) of paediatric EAS patients. Immediate postoperative remission was attained in 77.9% (88/113) patients, whereas 30.4% (24/79) relapsed over a median (IQR) period of 13 (8-36) months. Over a median (IQR) follow-up of 2 (0.6-4.6) years, 31.4% of patients died. The median survival was higher in bronchial NET than in other tumour groups. Distant metastasis and tumour size were independent negative predictors of survival. CONCLUSIONS: Aetiological profile of paediatric and adolescent EAS is distinct from that of adults. Bronchial NETs have the best long-term survival, whereas distant metastasis and tumour size predict poor survival.

Unexpected exacerbation of cryptococcal meningitis after unilateral adrenalectomy in a PMAH patient: a case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Primary bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (PMAH) combined with infection by an opportunistic pathogen is complicated. Clinical evidence on managing PMAH patients with infections by opportunistic pathogens is insufficient. CASE PRESENTATION: A 66-year-old male was admitted with bilateral adrenal masses and was diagnosed with PMAH. Fever and disturbance of consciousness appeared after laparoscopic left adrenalectomy. Cryptococcal meningitis was confirmed by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture. The exacerbation of his medical condition was suspected to result from immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), and he had been treated with antifungal therapy and glucocorticoid replacement, but he responded poorly and eventually died of multiorgan failure. We summarized the clinical observations of 12 Cushing's syndrome (CS) patients infected by Cryptococcus. Seven out of nine patients who were treated for cryptococcus infection before receiving CS survived, while three patients treated for cryptococcus infection after CS treatment developed signs of IRIS and eventually died. CONCLUSION: Cushing's syndrome, complicated with cryptococcal infection, has a high mortality rate, mainly when IRIS emerges. Carefully identifying the presence of the suspected infection, and controlling cryptococcal infection before removing the culprit adrenals could be the rational choice.

Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) syndrome: two case reports.

BACKGROUND: Clinically, the incidence of ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) syndrome (EAS) is often obscured, making it difficult to identify the primary lesion. This can pose challenges in both diagnosing and treating the disease. Therefore, this paper presents two cases of EAS to share insights and guide diagnosis and treatment approaches. DESCRIPTION OF CASES: Case 1 is a male patient aged 71, and Case 2 is a female patient aged 61. EAS was considered for both patients according to the medical history and auxiliary examination results. After the blood glucose and blood potassium were slightly stable, Case 1 received the total right adrenalectomy and the left subtotal adrenalectomy. After the surgery, a positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) was used to identify the primary lesion in Case 1, and the result showed primary neuroendocrine tumors originating from the thymus with metastasis. A chest CT scan with contrast for Case 2 confirmed the presence of multiple soft tissue nodules in both lungs, suspected of being tumor lesions, along with mediastinal lymph node enlargement. A CT-guided lung puncture was not performed due to a progressive decrease in platelets, and the patient died due to severe lung infection eventually. CONCLUSIONS: PET-CT can be an effective method for diagnosing EAS. Early control of hypercortisolism is vital in preventing life-threatening infections in EAS patients.

[Infectious pneumonia favored by paraneoplastic Cushing syndrome in a pulmonary carcinoid tumor]. / Pneumopathie infectieuse favorisée par un syndrome de Cushing paranéoplasique d'une tumeur carcinoïde pulmonaire.

INTRODUCTION: Ectopic Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a rare condition nevertheless well-known to endocrinologists. The pneumologist may be called upon to treat CS not only because bronchial carcinoid tumors are the most frequent source of ectopic ACTH secretion, but also due to the fact that the immunosuppression induced by hypercorticism favors lower respiratory tract infections. CASE REPORT: We report the case of a female patient presenting with acute respiratory failure secondary to Enterobacter cloacae pneumonia exacerbated by SC. Further investigations confirmed ectopic ACTH secretion and revealed a right upper lobe pulmonary nodule. After appropriate antibiotic therapy, the patient received preoperative adrenolytic treatment. Management by right upper lobectomy resulted in the extraction of a 12mm tumor. Pathological analysis was consistent with the diagnosis of a typical carcinoid tumor. Immunohistochemistry confirmed ACTH secretion by the tumor. Even though the postoperative course showed CS regression, the patient developed adrenal insufficiency. CONCLUSION: Ectopic CS induces immunosuppression, which aggravates lower respiratory tract infections. Search for a pulmonary neuroendocrine tumor should be systematic. Following control of the secretory syndrome by adrenolytic treatment, and if the diagnosis of carcinoid tumor is confirmed, surgical treatment is the preferred option.

Ovine CRH Stimulation and 8 mg Dexamethasone Suppression Tests in 323 Patients With ACTH-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome.

CONTEXT: Determining the etiology of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)-dependent Cushing's syndrome (CS) is often difficult. The gold standard test, inferior petrosal sinus sampling (IPSS), is expensive and not widely available. OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the performance of the corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test (CRH-ST) and the 8 mg high-dose dexamethasone suppression test (HDDST) in distinguishing Cushing's disease (CD) from ectopic ACTH syndrome (EAS). METHODS: Retrospective review in a tertiary referral center. A total of 323 patients with CD or EAS (n = 78) confirmed by pathology or biochemical cure (n = 15) in 96% underwent CRH-ST and HDDST performed between 1986 and 2019. We calculated test sensitivity (Se), specificity (Sp), positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value, and diagnostic accuracy (DA) for the diagnosis of CD, and determined optimal response criteria for each test, alone and in combination. RESULTS: The CRH-ST performed better than the HDDST (DA 91%, 95% CI 87-94% vs 75%, 95% CI 69-79%). Optimal response criteria were a ≥40% increase of ACTH and/or cortisol during the CRH test and a ≥69% suppression of cortisol during the HDDST. A ≥40% cortisol increase during the CRH test was the most specific measure, PPV 99%. Seventy-four percent of subjects had concordant positive CRH test and HDDST results, yielding Se 93%, Sp 98%, DA 95%, and PPV 99%, with a pretest likelihood of 85%. A proposed algorithm diagnosed 64% of patients with CD with near perfect accuracy (99%), obviating the need for IPSS. CONCLUSION: CRH is a valuable tool to correctly diagnose the etiology of ACTH-dependent CS. Its current worldwide unavailability impedes optimal management of these patients.